Italy was one of the countries that had hard times economically after the war. It also was unsatisfied with the outcome of the treaties. It had hoped for more territorial gain than it eventually received. In 1923 an authoritarian “fascist” movement under the leadership of Benito Mussolini came to power.

The early twenties saw terrible economic hardship and political instability in Germany. The harsh terms of the Peace Treaty did not allow Germany to recover from its crises. The French, who took a hard line against the Germans, even occupied the Ruhr area in 1923 when super inflation caused the reparation payments to lapse. It was soon realised that this situation was untenable. In 1924, some improvement in the German economy was achieved when the strict reparation payments were eased by the Dawes plan. In 1925 the Treaty of Locarno eased the tense situation between Germany and its former foes Italy, France, Britain and Belgium. The Rhineland, that was under allied occupation, was cleared by the occupying forces and turned in to a demilitarized zone. Germany accepted its new western borders in return. For a few years the Weimar democracy seemed to stand a chance of survival, but the great economic crisis of 1929 destroyed the already precarious democracy in Germany. Adolf Hitler and his National-Socialist (Nazi) party came to power in 1933. Books were burned in Germany. People would follow. An obnoxious racist and fiercely anti-Semitic regime took over in Germany. It unilaterally cancelled the Treaty limitations on German rearmament. The regime was popular because it restored national pride and also restored the economy. Huge public works and the rearmament industry boosted the German economy. In 1935 Hitler occupied the demilitarised Rhineland. The allies only protested, but took no further action, signifying the failure of the post-war international safety system.

France concluded a number of alliances with East European countries and with Belgium to guarantee its security and its hold over Continental affairs after the British had all but retreated its guarantees towards France. In the end this system of alliances would too prove ineffective. The fear of a new war, combined with moves towards disarmament and an unjustified confidence in the effectiveness of the League of Nations’ ability to solve international conflicts, enabled countries like Germany and Italy to defy the international community with no risk of effective counter measures. The general feeling that the Versailles treaty had been grossly unfair towards Germany contributed greatly to that state of affairs.

In the United Kingdom the early twenties saw the secession of Ireland. The Irish had long held ambitions of gaining self rule or even independence. Violent campaigns by Irish nationalists had begun as early as the Nineteenth Century. The question of Irish Home Rule had become a catastrophically divisive factor in British politics over the turn of the century. Shortly before the Great War a Home Rule Bill finally passed, but the war prevented it from coming into force. The violent 1916 Easter rising had not been popular with many Irish because of the involvement of the Germans, Britain’s war time enemy. The excessive brutal reaction of the British however, caused popular support for the rebels to increase dramatically. In fact the British harmed their cause greatly by the execution of many of the Easter rebels and revised their policy only when it was too late. In 1919 the Irish Republic was declared and the Irish war of Independence started in earnest. Again the British resorted to very harsh tactics. The Irish stroke back hard however and in 1921 a treaty compromise was enforced. The Irish Freestate (1921-1937) was erected, but it had to remain within the British Empire, like the independent Dominions of South-Africa, Canada, Australia, Newfoundland and New-Zealand. The King remained the Head of State, and the Irish parliamentarians, who had left the House of Commons to form the "Dail Eirenean", were obliged to swear their loyalty to the British Crown, represented by a Governor-General. London would retain some influence over foreign policy and certain ports were to be used by the British Navy. The most contested provision of all was however that the mainly protestant counties of Northern Ireland would remain a part of the United Kingdom proper, as a territory with Home Rule. Irish politics were since divided between pro- and anti-treaty parties. A brief civil war followed but the anti-treaty forces had to accept the status quo. The pro-treaty party did not view the treaty as a final settlement. They saw it as a means to obtain full sovereignty, a Republic and unification of the country in due course. In 1931 the Statute of Westminster redefined the Dominion status. The Dominions and Britain were now equal and independent partners within the British Commonwealth and Empire. No British law could bind the Dominions without their permission. Only the Unity of the Crown was the binding factor. This enabled Ireland to do away with the oath of allegiance and with the Governor-General. It also now gained full control over all its ports and its foreign policy. The anti-treaty parties returned to the political arena. They came to power and used the abdication crisis of 1936 to adopt the virtually Republican Constitution of the State of Eire (1937-1949). That constitution erected the office of a President of Ireland. The King was only kept as symbolic representative of the State to the outside world. Ireland thus had a President and a King at the same time. The constitution of the State of Eire also claimed the sovereignty over Northern Ireland.